Transboundary River Water Issues: A Bangladesh Perspective Tauhidul Anwar KhanFormer Member, Joint Rivers Commission, Bangladesh Former Director General, Water Resources Planning Organization, Bangladesh. Bangladesh in Brief Bangladesh is located in south Asia in the north-east of the Indian sub-continent and covers a total area of 147570 square Km (56,077 Sq. miles). It has a common border in the west, north and east with India, a short border with Myanmar in the south-east and is bordered by the Bay of Bengal in the south. The landmass of Bangladesh is flat, with some upland in the north-east and the south- east. The great plain his almost at sea level along the southern part of the country and rises gradually towards north. Land elevation in the plain varies from 1 to 90 miles above sea level. The maximum elevation is 1230 meters (4035 ft.) above sea level at Keocradang hill in Bandarban hill district. The geo-morphology of the country comprises of a large position of flood plains (79.1%), some terraces is under vegetation. The total cultivable area is estimated at 9.03 million ha (22.30 million acres), which is about (1867 million acres) is suitable for irrigation. The population of Bangladesh is around 140 million, of which about 75% are rural, the annual demographic growth rate is estimated at 1.47% Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries of the world with about 834 persons/sq. Km (2160 persons/sq. mile) on average over the country. About half the population lives below poverty line. The agriculture sector continues to play a vital role in the country's economy. It accounts for about 25% of the GDP and 69% of the national employment. It is estimated that the total population of the country would be 181 million at a growth rate of 1.13% by the year 2021 Bangladesh faces huge challenges in securing the food supply by enhancing food production to feed the increasing population projection of existing trends in crop production, suggests for providing at least 34 million types of clean milled rice by the year 2025 to match the demand of the population. This would require full development of irrigated agriculture on all suitable land. To that end more amounts of water would have to be ensured for irrigating the crop lands. At the same tome, the environment of the country would need to be protected to ensure the integrity of ecosystems through sustainable water management. Countryside average annual rainfall is about 2300 mm. More than 80 percent of the total annual rainfall occurs during the monsoon between June and October. In the dry season (November through April) the rainfall is very thematic and negligible as well. There are about 230 notable rivers in the country. Of these, 57 are Trans-boundary Rivers common with India (54) and .......... Most of Bangladesh is located within the flood pains of three great rivers- the Ganges, the Brahmeputra and the Meghna, which drains into the Bay of Bengal through Bangladesh. About 93% of the catchments area of the basins of these three major rivers is located outside Bangladesh in areas of China, India, Nepal and Bhutan. On average 1068 Billion Cubic Meters ( BCM) or 866 million Acre Feet (MAF) of water enters Bangladesh from across its borders annually through the Tran boundary rivers. But 80% of this annual flow is concentrated in the monsoon months between June and October. With its flat topography, Bangladesh does not hold the prospect of large-scale conservation of monsoon water for use during the dry season. There are both consumptive and non-Consumptive uses of water in Bangladesh. The consumptive uses include water uses for domestic and municipal uses, irrigation, some types of industrial uses forestry etc. On the other hand non-consumptive uses include water uses for fishery, navigation and maintenance of ecological balance. The highest demand for consumptive use of water is from the agricultural sector which large amount of flow is required in rivers and channels from navigation, fishery etc. Present demand of portable supply and industrial use in the country is relatively smaller. However the current water availability in the dry season (November-May) is far below from the demand. Potential soil moisture deficiencies over six to seven months during the dry season seriously limit crop production in Bangladesh. Bangladesh is a disaster prone country. Most the disasters that hit this country are water related. Catastrophes like tropical cyclones, severe floods and tidal surges claimed approximately 153,000 lives in Bangladesh during the 10 years from late 1980s to late 1990s, affected at least 50 million people and caused damage to property worth more than US $ 10 billion. With only 14.7 million hectares (ha) land is limited in the country. Out of this net cultivable area is only 8 million ha. More over river erosion is causing a net loss of 9,000 ha land every year. This is turning the situation more and more critical in this land hungry country. The coastline of Bangladesh is affected by ingression of salinity from the Bay of Bengal. The fresh water flow from upland through the network of channels flowing southwards normally restricts the salinity ingression from the Bay. The intensity of 2000 .............. is considered as tolerably limit of salinity when normal agricultural practices can continue unhindered. There had been significant increase in salinity intrusion over the last three decades in the south west region of the country as a result of drastic reduction of dry season fresh water flow through important distributaries of the Ganges like Gorai, Bhairab, Mathabhanga, Kumar,..........., Chitra, Betna , Nabaganga etc. Consequent upon cross borders upstream diversion of Ganges waters from Farakka. The salinity land in Khulna district of the southwest region, which is also an industrial city, shot up to 29,000 microchips in 1992 and 1995. The ingress of salinity has caused manifold adversities in the agro-socio economic life of millions of people living in an area of about 2 million hectares (ha). Consequently the environment of this region of the country has been worst hit. The environment of Bangladesh would have to be protected to ensure the integrity of ecosystem through sustainable water resources management. II. Water Resources situation of Bangladesh. Water is one of the most important resources for Bangladesh. The country is a riverine one and the life and living of its millions of people have evolved and revolved around the flows of the rivers for centuries which have been acting as the life line for the very sustenance of agriculture, economy, environment, societal development, peace and harmony amongst the people. The water availability in the country varies significantly between the season more than 80% of the average 1068 Billion Cubic Meter (BCM) annual flow that enters Bangladesh from across the borders in concentrated in the form months between June and October. During the dry season (Nov-May) when water is badly needed, the cross-border flow reduces to an average of only 159 BCM. In the critical dry month of March, when water demand is at its peak and the in-country rainfall negligible, the total flow through the Trans-boundary Rivers comes down to a mere average of 18 BCM. According to some calculation annual per capita water availability in 9,400 Cubic metres (m3). But this figure does not represent the real picture of water unavailability in the country, as the seasonal water availability is highly variable. A study group has estimated that during the wet monsoon season (June- September) the per capita water availability is 6,613 m3 as against a per capita demand of 1,001 m3. On the other hand during the dry season between January and April the per capita water availability is only 562 m3 as against the per capita demand of 1,134 m3 during that period. It is, therefore, quite evident that during the wet monsoon period the per-capita water availability in less than half compared to the demand. Floods during monsoon and sense scarcity of water during dry season are the two perennial problems frustrating Bangladesh developmental efforts. During floods, more than 90% of the water that inundates the country enters Bangladesh from across the borders through the Trans-boundary Rivers. During the dry season when rainfall is really scarce, the flow of the trans-boundary rivers entering from the other side of the border provide the much sought after water in every spare of life and living. Of the 54 rivers which enter the country from outside, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers together supply about 85% of the total surface water available in the country during the dry season. The other rivers like the Teesta, Dharla, ...................................... etc also play an important role in providing surface water in various part of the country. But as already mentioned the water availability in less than half of the demand which puts severe strain almost in every sector. This water scarcity of water during dry season as being exacerbated by increasing upstream diversions of precious flown from a number of transboundary rivers across Bangladeshi borders. In the face of scarcity of surface water in the country during dry seasons, Bangladesh, over the decades, has been compelled to use more and more ground water. During the dry season, Ground water contributes more than 75% of the total water use in the country. But this important and major source of water has now become vulnerable to serious contamination by salinity as well as by Arsenic in many parts of the country. Arsenic Contamination of Ground water in Bangladesh Bangladesh started an extensive problem to provide safe drinking water at low cost to rural population in the year 1980. By 1997 it achieved a remarkable success by providing 97% of the rural population with tube well water supply. Approximately 95% of the Bangladesh population got their water for drinking and cooking from more than seven million hand tube wells (HTW) Most of these tube well water are today contaminated Arsenic. Extensive arsenic contamination of the ground water in the alluvial aquifers of Bangladesh is probably the wssnt case of water pollution in the present time. It is not only difficult to overcome; its victims suffer a slow but painful death from cancer, skin and other diseases. In 1993, groundwater in some areas of the northwest region of Bangladesh was found contaminated with arsenic. In the year 1997 groundwater for arsenic contamination by the department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE) sampled about 2,023 tube wells across 250 Thanas (out of a national total of 464) of the country. It was observed that arsenic in groundwater is strongly concentrated virtually in entire areas of the southeast and southwest regions of the country. As more information started pouring in, it was found that arsenic contamination was spreading in more and more areas and the problem was taking a gigantic magnitude. It was subsequently reported that groundwater in different areas of more than 50 out of the total 64 districts of the country was contaminated with arsenic in various degrees. (Figure-3). On an average, I in every 3 shallow tube wells in effected areas is producing water with arsenic in excess of acceptable limit. The World Health Organization (WHO) standard on acceptable limit of arsenic is 0.01 mg/liter while the Bangladesh standard was set at 0.05 mg/liter. Studies show that pattern of arsenic contamination of tube well waters has been erratic from which the changes cannot be predicted even within short distances. Preliminary findings indicate that distribution is far from uniform. In some hot spots, all tube wells are contaminated while in other places both positive and negative results have been obtained fro-different tube wells in close proximity. The problem mainly affects shallow tube wells, although some deep tub wells are contaminated. The highest concentration of arsenic occurs at depths between 20m (......ft) and 70m (....ft) below ground Most of the tub wells, Most of the tube wells deeper than 150 and 200 meters have been found to contain low concentration of arsenic but they are vulnerable. The current situation is such that the problem is increasing both in terms of extent and intensity. For example, tube wells that were "safe" a year back are no longer safe. This in itself is alarming as no one can possibly know when a tube well water become dangerous, as arsenic in the water has wither taste nor smell-which means that all existing tube wells must be continuously monitored for watching the arsenic levels. The Government is doing its best in terms of monitoring the tube wells and the concerned departments and NGOs are immediately marking the tube well "red" whenever found producing water contaminated with arsenic. A joint program by the Government of Bangladesh (GOB) and World Bank – UNDP took the leadership and coordinating role to detect and tackle the arsenic issue. With a fresh program under this joint venture, teams of workers from DPHE, NIPSOM and Local NGOs went to the affected villagers, teams recommended short-term solutions, such as using wells that shown to have low levels of arsenic/that may often be inconsequently far away), rainwater harvesting or arsenic removal techniques. Heavy extraction for irrigation in the rural areas has lowered the water table in many areas below the effective reach of Hand Tube wells (HTW). In some areas the abstraction is fast approaching the limiting potential Recharge beyond which overdraft is feared. Major cities and other urban centers too are facing the problem of receding water table due to heavy groundwater extraction for the urban domestic water supply and industrial uses. In major of rural areas, traditional hand tube wells are being replaced technology of Tara pump or tube wells with motorized pumps in order to respond to the receding water table. Dug wells, which are found not contaminated with arsenic, have become dried out in many areas. During the peak demand period in March and April, thousands of ponds, tanks get dried up, resulting in acute shortages of water for domestic and cloned water fisheries. Causes of Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater Several departments, research organizations involving both national and expatriate experts have carried out intensive investigations and research to find out the causes of arsenic contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh. It is believed that thousands of years ago, rocks rich in arsenic were eroded from the Himalayas and other high elevation source areas and were deposited in the deltaic areas of Bangladesh along with sand, silt, and clay, Various the ....... are now heard in Bangladesh over the cause of arsenic contamination of groundwater. Of the several theories, the following two got prominence: First Theory Oxidation of the arsenic found in the arsenopysite rocks. The layer under the ground contains a compound called pyrite, which holds the arsenic. Previously it did not pose to be harmful, but now the pyrite is getting oxidized.. Heavy withdrawal of groundwater and the sinking of tube wells, has caused the underground aquifers to become aerated, thus transforming an essential anaerobic environment into an aerobic one. The newly introduced oxygen oxidized the arsenopyrites and released the arsenic into groundwater. When arsenic comes into contact with water and air, the arsenopyrites form hydrated arsenate, which is highly soluble in water and very soft. The highly pressure from the tube well water helps to break down the hydrated arsenic into fine particles which get dissolved. Water is pumped incessantly over a long period of time; the quantities of arsenic will gradually increase. The process is irreversible. Second Theory A study by British Geological Society and Mott McDonalds Limited in 1998 came out with a second theory that arsenic from the late Pleistocene to recent Bangladeshi sediments has been released into the groundwater by a natural process called " Oxyhdroxide reduction". In this process, arsenic is released into surrounding water when fine- grained iron or manganese ox hydroxides dissolve due to conditions of reduction in oxygen levels. This theory has however failed to impress most of the concerned groundwater in Bangladesh. Health Hazard of Arsenic Arsenic tends not to accumulate in the body but is excreted naturally. It ingested faster, arsenic does accumulate in hair and fingernails. Early symptoms can range from the development of dark spots on the skin, to a hardening of the skin into modules- often on the palms and soles. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that these symptoms can take 5 to 10 years of constant exposure to arsenic to develop. Over time, these symptoms can become more pronounced and in some cases, internal organs including the liver, kidneys and lings can be affected. A recent study by Prof. Allan H. Smith an epidemiologist and WHO consultant, has revealed that only ten percent of those affected by arsenic sis will developed the visible signs of Melanesia, Kurtosis, skin cancer and gangrene, the remainder will develop internal cancer-mainly lung cancer and renal failure. Tony Fletcher, a British environmental epidemiologist from London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine agreed. He said, "What I have seen is very grave. The member of patients could be very high there is an urgent need for health related research on arsenic." Prof. Quazi Quamruzzaman, Chairman of the Dhaka Community Hospital Trust said, "The scale of arsenic contamination of groundwater is not confined to shallow tube wells only. The size of the population suffering from cancer caused by drinking the contaminated tube well water is no less. Based on our most recent random survey in villages, we estimated that the number of people at risk of arsenic cancer might ultimately run into millions. Although officially only 7,600 cases of arsenic cancer patients have been detected so far- there will be more." In the face of than crisis the Government of Bangladesh has decided to use more and more surface water for different uses as it would be really unwise to heavily depend on groundwater any more. The Government also agreed that the amount of arsenic free groundwater (in the deeper aquifers) whenever available must be protected and preserved for the coming generation. As already mentioned that the major sources of supply of surface water in the country are the transboundary rivers entering from outside. Bangladesh has not been able so far to harness and develop its surface waters, particularly those are available in the Ganges and the Brahmaputra due uncertainties of its availability in Bangladesh particularly during the dry seasons. iii. Trans-boundary rivers of Bangladesh There are 57 trans-boundary rivers passing through Bangladesh as already indicated in figure of those 54 rivers are common between India and Bangladesh and 3 rivers are common between Bangladesh and Myanmar. The list of the 54 rivers, which enter Bangladesh from India, is as follows:
For centuries, the waters of the Trans-boundary Rivers have been shaping the life and living of the Bangladesh people. Indeed, the integral balance between human and nature in most of Bangladesh turns essentially on waters of the Trans-boundary Rivers. Without there waters, the livelihood of millions of Bangladeshis comes under severe stress. The dependence of the population and ecological balance in various parts of Bangladesh on the trans-boundary river flown is total. Bangladesh has unfortunately been watching with grave concern, the gradual reduction of the dry season flows of the Ganges, Teesta and a number of other trans-boundary rivers due to upstream diversions across the borders in India. Considering the vital influence and importance of the flown of the trans-boundary rivers on the life and living of people, Bangladesh had been seeking close cooperation from its neighboring riparian countries. To that end, Bangladesh had established with India the Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission (JRC) in 1972 for working together for havening, development and management of the common river waters. The statute of the JRC states that the JRC would perform various functions with special attention to the following functions in particulars - To maintain liaison between the participating countries in order to ensure the most effective joint efforts in maximizing the benefits from common river, systems to both the countries, - To formulate flood control works and recommend implementation of joint projects, - To formulate detailed proposals on advance flood warnings, flood forecasting and cyclone warnings, - To study flood control and irrigation projects so that the water resources of the region can be utilized on an equitable basis for the mutual benefit of the peoples of the two countries, and - To formulate proposals for carrying out coordinated research on problem of flood control affecting both the countries. The JRC was subsequently entrusted with the major responsibility to assist the two Governments in formulating arrangement for sharing the flows of the Ganges and other common rivers like the Teesta, Dharla, Dudhkumar etc. Since the mid-seventies, the JRC denoted bulk of its time to address the issue of sharing of waters of the Ganges and few other common rivers. But, most of the time, the JRC remained involved in the issue of sharing of the dry season flows of the Ganges available at Farakka. The history of negotiations on the sharing of the Ganges water dates back to the 1950s. The Ganges-a resume The Ganges rises from the Gangotri glaciers in India and flown through north-east and eastern parts of the South Asian region. 11 miles (18 km) below Farakka in India, the Ganges enters Bangladesh and jouns the Brahmaputra river at Aricha. the total length of the Ganges from source to outfall is 1570 miles. For most of its length, the water for irrigation projects in the Ganges basin area over two centuries. The British ushered the modern period of water resources develorment in India in the Ganges basin. Renovation of the Western and Eastern Yamuna canals was the first enterprise of British Military engineers and they were respened in 1820 and 1830 respectively. The upper Ganges canal was undertaken in 1868 and complited in 1878. Many storage works and canals were taken up in the Bundelkhand area in Bihar. The some canal was completed in 1879 and the Tribeni canal on the Gamdau river by 1914. The Sarda canal system in Uttar pradesh (UP) was constructed between 1915 and 1926. During all these years, the British rulers however, did nothing in terms of irrigation or water resources development in the lowest reach of the basis, which was then called East Bengal (now Bangladesh). This area remained grossly neglected in every respect. In August 1947, British India was partitioned and there emerged two nations-India and Pakistan. Most of erstwhile East Bengal constituted the eastern province of Pakistan, called East Pakistan. Since its independence, India made intense efforts to further harness and develop the water resources of Ganges basin in its territory. Information indicate that India has now several dozens of large barrages and other diversion structures operation in the basin which are capable of diverting more than 100,000 cubic feet per second (cusec) flows from the Ganges and its different tributaries. Moreover India constricted about 300 major, medium and small storage dams scattered over the Ganges basin area. 51 of these major storage reservoirs have a total storage capacity of 2221 billion cubic feet or 63 Billion Cubic meters (BCM). During the same period, the pace of water slow. In the 1960s, responding to popular demands, the then Government of Pakistan however, implemented a medium sized irrigation project on the bank of the Gonges river downstream of the Hardinge Bridge called the Ganges-Kopadak irrigation project. The project now pumps water from the Ganges to irrigate a little less than 100,000 hectres (ha) of land in the greater districts of Kustia and Jessore.. Bangladesh could not embank upon any major development of the waters of the Ganges and other trans-boundary rivers in the face of uncertainties of its dry season availability from across the border. Issue of Sharing Ganges waters between Bangladesh and India The problem over the sharing of dry season Ganges flows arose out of an Indian decision to build a barrage across the river at Farakka. The stated pump one of the barrage was to divert water into the ....... river to improve the navigability of the post of Calcutta in the Indian state of West of Bengal. Chronology of Events : Pre-Bangladesh period On October 29,1951 the then Pakistan government drew the attention of the Indian authorities to the report of a scheme for diverting large amounts of dry season flow of the Ganges to resuscitate the Bhagirathi-Hovgly river along which the port of Kolkata is situated. Four months later, on March 8, 1952 India replied that the project was only under preliminary investigation and described Pakistan's concern over probable effects as purely hypothetical. On May 8, 1952 Pakistan quoted press reports that India was engaged in a multipurpose scheme envisaging the resuscitation of not one, but five rivers of West Bengal, and a published technical report saying large quantities of water from the Gandak, a tributary of the Ganges, were being diverted for irrigation in Bihar and Uttar Prodesh in India reply, sent a year later on May 22, 1953, reassured that the Farakka and Gondak projects were still being investigated and India would appreciate cooperative development of the water resources of the Ganges. The first bilateral negotiation on the Ganges held between India and Pakistan from June 28 to July 3, 1960, nine years after the issue was first mooted. The Government of India announced in January, 1961 that it was geeing ahead with the plan to build a barrage across the Ganges at Farakka and Pakistan was formally informed. The actual construction work of the Farrkka barrage started immediately thereafter. Talks took place occasionally between India and Pakistan, but seal negotiation and Consultation did not the Ministerial discussions promised in the agreement in London in March, 1961 between the Indian Premier and Pakistani President, did not take place. During much of the time, India tried to maintain that the Ganges is not an international river, "To have been denial of this live of argument", mentioned one researcher. India did agree to some discussions afterwards and there were form technical exchanges in 1961, and a fifth in 1968. Five meetings between India and Pakistan were held at the secretaries` level held at Islamabad in February, 1970, the Pakistan delegation recorded its final position regarding all the technical issues. The delegation strained the futility of further discussion of these issues except in the context of agreed allocation of water from the Ganges to East Pakistan. India completed the Farakka barrage by 1970-the 24 mile Feeder canal was, however, not ready. Post Bangladesh period Bangladesh came into being in 1971. The Governments of India and Bangladesh decided to set up the Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission (JRC) in November 1972. The question of sharing the water of Ganges between India and Bangladesh was however kept to be settled at the level of prime Ministers of the two countries. The two prime Ministers met in New Delhi in May 11, 1974 where in they observed that during the periods of minimum flow, in the Ganges, there might not be enough water and, therefore, the fair weather (dry season) flow of the Gages in the lean month would have to be augmented to meet the needs of Calcutta point and the full requirements of Bangladesh. They also agreed that the best means of augmentation through optimum utilization of the water resources of the region available to the two countries should be studied by the JRC. The two sides expressed their determination that before the Farakka project is commissioned; they would arrive at a mutually acceptable allocation of the water available during the periods of minimum flow in the Ganges. The JRC accordingly took up the issue of augmentation of the Ganges flows but was unable to reach any agreement. First, the Bangladesh side in the JRC suggested storage of monsoon flows in the Ganges basin in India and Nepal to augment the fair weather flow of the in the lean months. However the Indian side did not agree stating that additional storage possibilities in India were limited. To depend on storage as a mean for augmentation of the Ganges flows in the lower reaches for the optimum development of water resources of the region was not realistic, opined India. The Indian side did not agree to the proposal of considering storage development in Nepal as it was outside the purview of the Indo-Bangladesh Joint River Commission (JRC). On the other hand India contended that storages appeared feasible in the Brahmuputra river in India and hence could be developed as and when the need arise. The Brahmaputra –Ganges Link held prospects of benefits to both the countries and filled with the concept of optimum development of the region. In response, Bangladesh stated that the requirements of the situation did not warrant transfer of water from the Brahmaputra into the Ganges. It suggested consideration of amending the pattern of diversion of the Ganges water into the Hooghly to meet the shortage in the Ganges in lean periods and also referred to the scheme of improving navigation by constructing a navigation link from Calcutta port to the sea via the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest, part of which is located in the extreme south east corner of west Bengal. But again, the India side disagreed to these suggestions. The Indians Contended that amending the pattern of diversion into the Hoogly was beyond the scope of the JRC. Furthermore, the proposal of constructing a separate navigation cannel was not connected with the question of optimum development of the water resources of the region. A number of such and other proposals in the past had been considered and found not feasible. Thus the JRC failed to reach any agreed conclusion on the subject. A minister level meeting between Bangladesh and India held in New Delhi in February 1975 also could not produce any agreement. At a subsequent minister level meeting in April of 1975 the Indian side proposed that as discussions regarding allocation of fair weather flows of the Ganges during lean months in terms of the Prime Ministers' Declaration of May of 1974 were continuing, in the mean time would like to make a test-run of the feeder canal of the Farakka Barrage for a limited period during that dry season. On good faith, Bangladesh agreed to India's request and allowed it to operate the feeder canal with varying discharges (11,000 to 16,000 cusec) in ten-day periods from April 21 to May 31,1975, ensuring the continuance of the remaining flows to Bangladesh. Although India was supposed to divert limited quantities of water from the Ganges for the said test-rum up to May 31, 1975, it continued withdrawals from Farakka to the full capacity of the feeder canal during the entire dry season of 1976 without entering into any understanding or agreement on sharing the flows despite Bangladesh's repeated requests. The consequences of India's actions had been tragic. The unilateral Indian withdrawals throughout the dry season of 1976 caused a marked reduction in the dry season Ganges flows in Bangladesh. At once stage in April of 1976, the flows amounted to only 23,200 cusec at Harainge Bridge (flow measurement station in Bangladesh) compared to the normal pre-Farakka flows of about 70,000 cusec. This sudden change in the flow pattern caused an alarming situation in the south western region of Bangladesh. In view of the seriousness of the situation Bangladesh repeatedly requested India to stop the unilateral withdrawals and come to a sharing agreement. But all these requests were fruitless. Having no other option, Bangladesh took the issue to the United Nations in November 1976. The Special Political Committee of the 31st Session of the UN General Assembly approved a consensus statement at its 27th meeting on November 25, 1976. The statement reads' "both parties agreed that situation called for an urgent solution and to this end the parties have decided to meet urgently in Dhaka at Ministerial Level for negotiations with a view to arriving at a fair and expeditious settlement". The statement further added, "it is open to either party to report to the General Assembly at the thirty-second session on the progress achieved in the settlement of the problem", In response to the UN statement, Bangladesh and India entered into more discussion. After several rounds of talks, the two sides signed an Agreement on November 5, 1977 for sharing the dry season (January 1 lo May 31) flows of the Ganges available at Farakka for a period of five years (1978-1982) according to a schedule which allocated roughly 60 percent of the Ganges flows available at Farakka as Bangladesh share. The agreement provided that in case of exceptionally low flows at Farakka, Bangladesh will be guaranteed at least 80 percent of its scheduled share for the concerned ten-day period This was popularly termed as the Guarantee Clause of the 1977 Agreement. The 1977 Agreement also provided that the Indo-Bangladesh JRC would make an agreed recommendation for augmenting the dry season flows of the Ganges at Farakka within a period of three years. Accordingly, Bangladesh made a proposal for augmenting the dry season Ganges flows by conserving monsoon flows in the upstream regions of the Ganges basin through construction of storage reservoirs in India and Nepal. India, on the other hand, proposed a mega- size link canal cutting through Bangladesh territory to transfer 100,000 cusec of waters from the Brahmaputra (another international river emanating from the northern slopes of the Himalayas and entering Bangladesh after flowing through China and India) to the Ganges during dry season. Eight meetings of the JRC were held between January of 1978 and September of 1980 but no agreement for augmenting the dry season Ganges flows was reached. Up to February, 1980, the Commission could not proceed because India raised prima facie objections to including Nepal in the study of the Bangladesh proposal. The agreement for sharing the dry season flows of the Ganges at Farakka, expired on May 31 1982. India rejected the Bangladesh proposal for extension of the Agreement period despite a provision for such extension in the 1977 Agreement. However, by October 1982, the two countries signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) for sharing the flows of the Ganges during the dry seasons of 1983 and 1984. This time the Guarantee Clause of 1977 was replaced by a burden sharing arrangement. The MOU also stipulated an eighteen month deadline for completing the pre-feasibility study and decide upon the optimum solution to the problem of augmenting the dry season flows at Farakka. Accordingly Bangladesh and India updates and exchanged their proposals on augmentation in 1983. The Bangladesh proposal focused on harnessing the water resources of the Ganges basin through seven storage reservoirs in Nepal. The Indian proposal again envisaged transfer of 100,000 cusec of dry season Brahmaputra waters to Farakka through the 200 mile Brahmaputra-Ganges Link Canal. The two sides then exchanged comments on each other's proposal in February, 1984. After several rounds of discussions between December of 1982 and March of 1984, the JRC on March 3, 1984 reported, "In view of the difference of views on each others proposal it was not possible for the Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission to make a recommendation which was acceptable to each other in regard to the optimum solution for augmentation of the dry season flows of the Ganges at Farakka" As a result there was a deadlock in the negotiations. The dry season of 1985 went without any sharing at Farakka. In the face of unilateral Indian withdrawal from Farakka, the flow of the Ganges at Hardinge Bridge was drastically reduced. To address the situation, the heads of governments discussed the issue when they met at Nassau, Bahamas in October of 1985 during the meeting of the Commonwealth Heads of Governments. Subsequently, an accord was reached between them, Accordingly the two countries signed another MOD on November 22, 1985 for sharing the flows of the Ganges during the dry seasons of 1986-88. As in the 1982 MOD, the 1985 MOU omitted the Guarantee Clause safeguarding the Bangladesh interests in case of exceptionally low flows at Farakka. The 1985 MOD, too, provided that an Indo- Bangladesh Joint Committee of Experts (JCE) would undertake studies to work out a long-term scheme or schemes for augmentation of flows of the Ganges at Farakka within a period of twelve months. However, in subsequent negotiations the JCE discussed the same old proposals on augmentation over a period of 24 months (with two six monthly extensions beyond the original mandate of 12 months) and again failed to arrive at an agreed scheme as each side stuck to its The tenure of sharing arrangements under the 1985 MOD expired on May 31, 1988. Since then, there was no instrument for sharing the dry season Ganges flows between the two countries. In the absence of any agreement, India again started unilateral withdrawals from Farakka, drastically reducing the dry season Ganges flows in Bangladesh. Ganges flows on a long term, permanent basis. The Secretaries of the Ministries or Water Resources of the Governments of Bangladesh and India held five rounds of discussions between June of 1990 and October of 1991. In the midst, the Bangladesh Foreign Minister also discussed the issue with his Indian counterpart in August of 1991. In all these discussions, India did not budge from its stand that perceived water shortages in the Ganges be replenished from Brahmaputra waters by suitable diversion structures. In May of 1992 at New Delhi, the Prime Ministers of Bangladesh and India directed their ministers to make renewed efforts for attaining a settlement for equitable, long-term and comprehensive sharing of the flows of the Ganges and other major rivers. The Prime Minister of India assured that every possible effort would be made to avoid undue hardships to Bangladesh by sharing the flows of the Ganges at Farakka on an equitable basis. However, subsequent negotiations have been disappointing. The Prime Ministers meeting of 1992 was followed by one Minister level and two Secretary level meetings between the two countries, but again without any positive result.. The Prime Ministers discussed the issue in April of 1993 at Dhaka, without any outcome. The negotiations on sharing the Ganges was in a logjam despite the assurance of the Indian Prime Minister not to cause undue hardship to Bangladesh.
In order to break the impasse, the Bangladesh Prime Minister once again took up the issue during discussions with the Indian Premier at New Delhi in May of 1995, This meeting was immediately followed by two rounds of meetings between the foreign secretaries of the two governments at New Delhi. Bangladesh urged for a long-term sharing of the existing dry season flows of the Ganges. Talks between the Foreign Secretaries were again held at Dhaka in June of 1995. These also did not yield any result. The two Secretaries, however, agreed to reactivate the Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission, dormant since its 31st meeting held in June of 1990. During the first half of 1996, governments in both India and Bangladesh changed and new governments came to power in both countries. Within days of its coming to power the new government of Bangladesh launched all out efforts to settle the Ganges sharing issue with India. As a result there were several rounds of intense negotiations between the two governments during the period from July to December 1996 at various levels. These negotiations culminated in the signing of the "Treaty between the government of the Republic of India and the government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh on sharing of the Ganges waters at Farakka". The Treaty was signed by the Prime Ministers of India and Bangladesh at New Delhi, India on December 12, 1996.
The Treaty entered into force upon signatures and would remain in force for a period of 30 years and it shall be renewable on the basis of mutual consent. This Treaty is no doubt was a great step forward in the Indo-Bangladesh negotiations on the Ganges. The Sharing of dry season Ganges flows available at Farakka between India and Bangladesh under the provisions of the 1996 treaty Commenced on 1st January, 1997. But in all these years, the issue of sharing other common river waters between the two countries did not get any prominence in the Indo-Bangladesh water talks excepting the issue of sharing of the waters of the Teesta River. The issue of sharing the Teesta started in 1972 and is still continuing, without any result however Seven meetings of the Indo-Bangladesh Joint Committee of Experts (JCE) till September 2005 also could not help. 3. The 1996 Indo-Bangladesh Treaty on sharing of Ganges Waters The 1996 Treaty between the governments of India and Bangladesh on sharing the Ganges water at Farakka for a period of 30 years was signed on 12th December, 1996. The Treaty provides among others: Article-1 The quantum of waters agreed to be released by India to Bangladesh will be at Article-11 (i) The sharing between India and Bangladesh of the Ganga/Ganges waters at Article-ll (ii) The indicative schedule at Annexure II, as referred to in sub para (i) above, is Article-11 (iii) In the event flow at Farakka falls below 50,000 cusecs in any 10-day penoa, the two Governments will enter into immediate consultations to make adjustments on an emergency basis, in accordance with the principles of equity, fair play ana no harm to either party. Article-VIII The two Governments recognize the need to cooperate with each other in finding a solution to the long-term problem of augmenting the flows of the Ganga/Ganges during the dry season. Article-IX Guided by the principles of equity, fairness and no harm to either party, both the Article-XI For the period of this treaty, in the absence of mutual agreement on adjustments following reviews as mentioned in Article X, India shall release downstream of ANNEXURE-1 Availability at Farakka Share of India Share of Bangladesh 70,000 cusecs or less 50% 50% 70,000 cusecs- 75,000 cusec Balance of flow 35,000 cusec 75,000 cusecs or more 40,000 cusecs Balance of flow Subject to the condition that India and Bangladesh each shall receive guaranteed 35,000 cusecs of water in alternate three 10-day periods during the period March 11 to May 10. ANNEXURE-II (Sharing of waters at Farakka between January 01 and May 31 every year.) If actual availability corresponds to average flows of the period 1949 to 1988, the implication of the formula in Annex-1 for the share of each side is. Period Average of total flow India's share Bangladesh's share 1949-88 (cusecs) (cusecs) 01-10 1,07,516 40,000 67,516 January 11-20 97,673 40,000 57,673 21-31 90,154 40,000 50,154 01-10 86,323 40,000 46,323 February 11-20 82,859 40,000 42,859 21-28/29 79,106 40,000 39,106 01-10 74,419 39,419 35,000 March 11-20 68,931 33,931 35,000* 21-31 64,688 35,000* 29,688 01-10 63,180 28,180 35,000* April 11-20 62,633 35,000* 27,633 21-30 60,992 25,992 35,000* 01-10 67,351 35,000* 32,351 May 11-20 73,590 38,590 35,000 21-31 81,854 40,000 41,854 ( * Three ten day period during which 35,000 cusecs shall be provided) The two countries have been since then sharing the dry season Ganges flows at Farakka on the basis of a schedule from 1st January to 31st May every year on 10-daily basis. The sharing records show that
There is an Indo-Bangladesh Joint Committee for monitoring and implementation of the arrangements for sharing the dry season flows of the Ganges between Bangladesh and India as per the 1996 Treaty. This committee has been meeting regularly in India and Bangladesh several times every year to set up joint observation team with observers from India and Bangladesh to measure daily flows at Farakka in the Ganges. Feeds Canel, Navigation lock and monitor the sharing arrangement and measure daily flows of the Ganges at a point near Hardinge Bridge in Bangladesh during the dry seasons ( i.e. 1st January to 31st May). The Committee has regularly prepared and submitted its Joint Committee meetings; The Bangladesh side has always been requesting the Indian side to fulfill its responsibilities to ensure the dry season availability of the Ganges at Farakka according to column-2 of Annexure-ii of the Treaty. Bangladesh has been telling India that lesser amounts of Ganges water as Bangladesh share was badly hurting Bangladesh interests. The availability of dry season Ganges flows in Bangladesh at the Hardinge Bridge point has already been halved since the commissioning of Farakka Barrage in 1975. The current trend of further reducing the dry season Ganges flows is creating an alarming situation in the fields of agriculture, fisheries, domestic and municipal water supply. Navigation, forests, ecology and environment in Bangladesh. The Indian side on the other hand is claiming that it is following the 1996 treaty while sharing the flown of the Ganges at Farakka. iv. The issue of the Teasta and other Transboundary Rivers Pursuant to article ix of the 1996 Indo-Bangladesh Treaty, the JRC has constituted an Indo-Bangladesh Joint Committee of Experts (JRC) to work out water sharing treaties/Agreements with regard to the rivers common to the two countries, in phases. The JCE had decided in its first meeting back in 1997 to undertake the formulation of sharing agreements of seven rivers, namely the Teesta, Dharla, Dudkumar, Manu, Khowai, Gomti and Muhuri. So far eight rounds of meeting of the JCE had been held in 11 years till 2007. Nothing in terms of agreement for sharing the flows of even one river has been possible. In fact, negotiations on sharing teesta flows between Bangladesh and India had been going on since 1972 in the JRC without any tangible result till now. The resultant effect has hurt only Bangladesh. In the absence of any sharing instrument, the upper riparian has been making unilateral withdrawals of water from various rivers at different points across the borders in the dry seasons, reducing the flows in Bangladesh significantly. Consequently the agro-socio-economic life and the environment in large areas of Bangladesh have been adversely affected and the conditions are deteriorating with the passage of time. With increasing population the water demand in Bangladesh is also increasing. In order to cope with the increasing water demands and the alarming situation of arsenic contamination of its groundwater, Bangladesh does not only need to restore the original dry season flows in the different trans-boundary rivers but also augment their flows significantly from the current level. The Governments of India and Bangladesh according to article viii of the 1996 treaty had recognized the need to cooperate with each other in finding a solution to the problem of long-term augmentation of the dry season flown of the Ganges at Farakka. Eleven years have elapsed, but not even one step has been taken in that direction despite repeated requests by the Bangladesh side. Bangladesh is a country whose land, people and environment have thrived and sustained on the waters supplied by the Trans-boundary Rivers for centuries. Significant reduction of dry season flows of the Ganges due to anthropogenic interventions across its borders in the upstream have ereated a very critical situation in this country in every sphere of life. The present water situation has put the Bangladesh environment in a peril. It needs to be appreciated that Bangladesh's environment can with stand such onslaughts only up to a limit. Anything more than that would ultimately result in a total disabler. Bangladesh sincerely believes that all Co basin countries neighboring Bangladesh would do everything remedial measures to heal the wounds already inflicted on the Bangladesh environment. The current situation is quite contrary to the principles of equity, fairness and no harm to either party to which both Bangladesh and India are firmly committed as per the 1996 Indo-Bangladesh Treaty. V. Flood Management and Flood Forecasting Bangladesh becomes the unfortunate victim of flood by the mighty trans-boundary rivers like the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna almost every year because of its geographical location. In fact, the entire flood flows from the vast catchments of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna eneomkaning 1.72 million sq. km. of China, India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh are drained through the small and overpopulated country, Bangladesh. The recurring phenomenon of floods is costing Bangladesh heavily in terms of both lives and properties. Although three out of the five principal mandates of the Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission relate to flood control and flood forecasting, it has unfortunately not yet achieved any notable in this respect. There is scope of flood mitigation in the Gages, Brahmaputra and Meghna river basins through meaningful and effective cooperation among the co-basin countries like China, India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. At the same time, Flood forecasting and timely warning can play a crucial side in reducing the damages to lives and properties. Under the aegis of JRC, there exists limited bilateral cooperation between Bangladesh and India for transmission of a limited amount of flood related data. Such cooperation with India however demands further broadening and strengthening. Acquisition of more real time hydro-meteorological data from upstream stations of India and other co-basin countries of the three aforementioned major rivers are essential to improve the lead time of flood forecasting and warnings in Bangladesh. To that end India and Bangladesh need to make efforts to ensure effective participation of China, Nepal and Bhutan also in this endeavor and ensure free flow of flood related data and information amongst all the said countries. vi) India's mega-project for interlinking its Rivers The waters of the Gonges and the Brahmaputra and their tributaries and distributaries have been sustaining life living and maintaining the ecological balance in vast areas of their country. India's proposed project (figure-4) for interlinking rivers for transferring waters from the north to south in a bid to resolve the water scarcity problem in south India. Under this project, thirty links have been envisaged to connect 37 rivers for providing the inter-linkage at a cost of Rs. 560,000 crores, which is approximately about 113 billion US dollars. The plan envisages transfer of water of the Ganges and tributaries to Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujrat. Similarly it also aims to divert the waters of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries to the Ganges and from there to the Gadavari, Krishna, Pennar and Cawvery basins through Subarnarekha in west Bengal and Mahanadi river of Orissa. Bangladesh is concerned that any such transfer of the Ganges and the Brahmeputra would cause irreparable and permanent damage to this country. The waters of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra act as life live to the people and environment of Bangladesh. The intensity of the river system in Bangladesh would be threatened by the Indian project. The proposed Indian river-linking project would involve a transfer of real resources from the most impoverished areas of the basins of these two rivers, exacerbating the poverty situation and widening the regional disparities. Scientists around the world, including the Indian Scientists, are of the opinion that the massive transfer of water from the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which are glacier-fed rivers, would not be sustainable and in all livelihood would cause serious adverse effects in a country like Bangladesh. The project might also trigger movement of populations, with unforeseeable consequences. Again it is established fact now that in the face of extensive pollution of its groundwater with arsenic and senility, Bangladesh has no alternative source of fresh water other than their two rivers during the dry season. Again, the massive intervention with the natural regime of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra river systems would remove the assured basis of development planning in the water and related sectors in Bangladesh and would create serious uncertainty. In the view of Bangladesh, the proposed Indian project would contravene the recognized principles of international law and the letter and spirit of existing agreements between Bangladesh and India. It referred to article ix of the Ganges water sharing Treaty, 1996 wherein the Governments of Bangladesh and India had agreed to be "Guided by the principles of equity, fairness and no harm to either party.........." the planned project would be contrary to the provisions of the Treaty of 1996. It is in this background that the Gocrenment of Bangladesh was constrained to express its serious concern over the proposed river inter-linking project of the Government of India. The Government of Bangladesh the Indian attention to the fact that public opinion in Bangladesh was deeply agitated aver this plan as India has no authority to deprive millions of Bangladeshis from the right to use the normal flows of there two rivers on which depends their life and living – Bangladesh formally recorded its concern over the Indian project during the 35th and 36th meetings of the Indo-Bangladesh JRC held in 2003 and 2005 at Delhi and Dhaka respectively and urged India to refrain from implementing this project. The perceived tampering of nature under this project has already sparked criticism in India. While some have viewed as injudicious, others described it as playing politics with the river eco-system. The Government and the people of Bangladesh sincerely hope that before undertaking any further step, the Indian Government would consider the soundness and wisdom of this idea of river linking. Any headlong such in the pursuit of this ambitious plan is bound to be disastrous for all. Bangladesh's policy on cooperation in the water sector with the neighboring co-basin countries Bangladesh has no control over the flows of the rivers entering from across its borders. As a result floods during the monsoon and scarcity of water during the dry seasons have now become a regular phenomenon in this country. Although the 1996 Treaty on sharing the Ganges water with India has brought a little relief to the drought-prone areas of southwest Bangladesh, the problem of water shortages during the dry season in getting increasingly acute with rising demands in all areas with rising demands of the increasing population. It has, therefore, been the policy of the Government of Bangladesh to undertake essential steps for realizing basin-wide planning for development and management the resources of the Trans-boundary Rivers. The policy of the Government of Bangladesh for fostering international cooperation in water management is to · Work with co-basin countries to establish a system of exchange of information and data on relevant aspects of hydrology, morphology, water pollution, Ecology, changing water shed characteristics, cyclone drought, flood warning, etc. and to help each other understand the current and emerging problems in the management of shared water resources; · Work with co-basin countries for a joint assessment of all the international rivers flowing through their territories for better understanding the overall potentials of the basin; · Work in close cooperation with co-basin countries to jointly manage the international rivers to mitigate floods and augment flows of water during the dry season through hardening, development and sharing of the water resources; · Make concerted efforts, in collaboration with co-basin countries, for management of the catchments areas with the help of a forestation and erosion control for watershed preservation and reduction of land degradation; · Work jointly with co-basin countries for the prevention of chemical and biological pollution of the flowing through these countries, by managing the discharge of industrial, agriculture and domestic pollutants; · Seek international and regional cooperation for achieving the goals of collaborating management of trans-boundary river waters. There are occasional problems between Bangladesh and India with the alignment of international border line in areas where the trans-boundary rivers flow between the two countries for certain lengths with one bank in India and the bank in Bangladesh. Consequently Bangladesh has lost its valuable lands. It is the avowed policy of the Government of Bangladesh to settle all border related issues through peaceful negotiations with its neighbors on the basis of no harm or loss to either part. The policy objectives of Bangladesh as enunciated above would be impossible to achieve without the active cooperation of Bangladesh immediate neighbors. There has been no dearth of sincerity and goodwill on the part of Bangladesh to achieve cooperation in the water eeton with the neighbor. There efforts however need to be reciprocated by Bangladesh's neighbors. VII. The Way Forward Water is most essential for the survival of all living beings on planet earth and nature. It must therefore, be made available to everyone. Adequate supply of water should also be there for preservation and regeneration of the environment. As such both scarcity and overabundance of it pone major threats to the people.The Trans-boundary Rivers like the Ganges, Brahmaputra and the other ones not only sustain life, living and nature in Bangladesh but also in vast areas of the basins of these rivers. Like the people of India, Nepal and Bhutan, the people of Bangladesh have also the equal rights to the use of waters of these rivers. Again right to have access to adequate quantity of water is a basic human rights. Even through the Ganges and the Brahmaputra basins constitute only about 0.12% of the world's total land mass, they home 10% of the world population and about 40% of the poor people of the developing world. Land-man ratio in there basin areas is steadily declining, while agricultural yield is well below the potential and is unable to generate the income, employment and surpluses needed to stipulate rapid industrialization. But this should not have been the care in view of the basins' reach endowments. In fact the fate of this entire region could have been changed dramatically through meaningful and effective cooperation amongst the relevant co-basin countries of the Transboundary Rivers like the Ganges, Brahmaputra and others. Integrated development and management of there transboundary river waters however remained neglected with inadequate appreciation of the fact that every year lost meant the loss of a productive multiplier through the creation of wealth and employment that would otherwise have been at work. Mutual cooperation for prosper management of trans-boundary waters amongst the co-basin countries had been impeded by mistrust, fear and misconception.. True and meaningful cooperation and appropriate implementation of plans drawn collectively by India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh can guarantee positive result for each other optimal solutions to flood, water scarcity and water quality problem can be found. Basin wide cooperative development, management and sharing of the trans-boundary river waters can only produce the desired results. It would be a mistake to treat waters of international rivers as "ours" and "theirs". To place international rivers under the umbrella of state over eighty would mean ignoring the realities of nature. The question, whether a state has sovereignty over water flowing through it has been debated for long with little agreement, because it has been the wrong question asked for the wrong reasons. Turning to the deal problems of seasonal over abundance and scarcity of water in the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, conservation would be the night answer. A position of the huge monsoon floods of the two rivers which cause wide spread damages could be conserved at appropriate storage sites upstream to mitigate flood intensities downstream. This in turn, would enable augmentation of the dry season flow of the rivers to satisfy the ever-increasing demands. The benefits from such water conservation would far outweigh some negative impacts of the storage reservoirs. The establishment of River Basin Authorities/Organizations for the Ganges and the Brahmaputra. River Basin Authorities currently working in different parts of the world; Took decades in the making. The ideal situation in this South Asian region would be to have river basin authorities/ organizations by a concrete agreement involving the governments of the co-basin countries and other stake holders. The international community can play the role of facilitations in this case. An international fund for water could also provide an essential incentive to cooperate of shared water resources. Water is a cardinal resource for stability and prosperity and should be used as a force for regional integration-not division. The sharing of water constituted the first step towards the emergence of civilization and unifying communities. In contrast, the act of depriving people of water, or even the belief that one's own people somehow have a superior right to trans-boundary rivers can be seen as a very fundamental manifestation, which is in no way congenial to regional stability and peace. In the case of cooperative management of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra river waters, all participating countries must operate on the basis of equal footing. Water is too precious a resource, which must be used for unifying the people of this region and dividing them. Last but not the least, water is a basic human right to all and must not be used as a political tool.
|
__._,_.___
[Disclaimer: ALOCHONA Management is not liable for information contained in this message. The author takes full responsibility.]
To unsubscribe/subscribe, send request to alochona-owner@egroups.com
Change settings via the Web (Yahoo! ID required)
Change settings via email: Switch delivery to Daily Digest | Switch to Fully Featured
Visit Your Group | Yahoo! Groups Terms of Use | Unsubscribe
__,_._,___