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Saturday, February 23, 2008

[mukto-mona] Thus Spake Nobel Laureates-PAULNURSE/DAVID BALTIMORE/ROGER KORNBERG/ROBERT CURL/EDMUND PHELPS

NEWS Bulletin from Indian Society For Sustainable Agriculture And Rural Development
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Thus Spake the Nobel Laureates ------
 
1. Nobel Laureate PAUL M NURSE - 'Scientists need better dialogue with the public'

2. Nobel Laureate DAVID BALTIMORE -  'We need to engineer the immunity system'   --- (HIV/AIDS and other diseases)
 
3. Nobel Laureate ROGER KORNBERG -  'We can soon unravel the mystery of human evolution'
 
4. Nobel Laureate ROBERT FLOYD CURL Jr -  'Nanotech evolved over billions of years'
 
5.  Nobel Laureate EDMUND PHELPS -  More jobs can lead to inclusive growth
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Interview with Nobel Laureate PAUL M NURSE
 
'Scientists need better dialogue with the public'
 
 
Posted online: Monday , February 18, 2008 at 0112 hrs IST
 
The knowledge of cells and the evolution of life has given mankind the opportunity to understand life in a better way. To demystify the complex process of nature, biologists need to take the help of scientists from disciplines like chemistry, physics and mathematics, says the British biochemist and president of the US-based Rockefeller University, Paul M Nurse. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine and physiology in 2001, along with Leland H Hartwell and R Timothy Hunt for their discoveries concerning the control of the cell cycle. They identified the key molecules that regulate the cell cycle in yeasts, plants, animals and human beings. These discoveries could have a great impact on all aspects of cell growth. Defects in cell cycle control may lead to the type of chromosome alterations seen in cancer cells. Therefore, their research opens new possibilities for cancer treatment. Nurse was recently in India in the first week of January to participate in the 95th Indian Science Congress in Visakhapatnam. In a chat with ASHOK B SHARMA, Nurse talks about his work on cell division and how his work has emerged as the basis for molecular understanding of cancer. Excerpts:
 
What excites you the most about your research on human cells?
 
I have tried to understand the complexities of life and this led me to examine the cell, which is the basic structure and functional unit of life.
 
A single cell contains many interesting properties. The very functioning within the cell is chemistry. The process that occurs within the cell are chemical reactions, but they are organised in such a way to give a biological cover—purposeful behaviour like life, ability to reproduce itself, ability to organise itself in time and space, and also the ability to maintain itself. The cell can be considered as a logical computer, processing and manag-ing information.
 
Does it mean to understand life, it's important not only to study biology, but chemistry as well?
 
The discoveries of the cell, the gene and the evolution, have made this concept abundantly clear. These discoveries ultimately led to new disciplines like biochemistry and molecular genetics.
 
In the days to come, biologists will have to seek help from scientists in other disciplines like mathematics, physics and chemistry to unravel the mysteries of life.
 
We need to further identify the logical and computational modules that operate in cells and their origin from the underlying molecular, biochemical and biophysical mechanisms. We need to work at a range of levels from cells to organisms and ecosystems.
 
The principle of natural selection—the survival of the fittest—can be seen in cancerous cells. It is a paradox that the very situation, which allowed life to evolve, is responsible for one of the most deadly diseases.
 
Why did you select yeast cells to understand cell reproduction?
 
I selected yeast because it is a simple organism. I found that basically, a yeast cell has the same body plan as a human cell.
 
How did you find the similarities between yeast and human cells?
 
About two decades ago, I was interested to know how cell division takes place in yeast.
 
I remember looking at the yeast cells under a microscope. I observed these becoming bigger, but not splitting into two as they were supposed to do in the process of cell division.
 
But I did not give up. I picked up a yeast clone and found these cells at a size smaller than the normal. I found that they divided at a faster rate because the genes that controlled the normal process were altered. I came to understand that there was some mechanism, which controlled the overall rate at which cells divided.
 
Ten years later, I wanted to learn whether the genes I had earlier discovered as responsible for controlling the division in yeast cells, were also responsible for the division in human cells. Hence, I took a yeast mutant that was defective in controlling the gene and could not divide. Then, I took human genes and sprinkled them on the yeast, just to see whether the yeast cells could take help from human genes. It really worked to my surprise. The cell division in yeast did take place and I could see it. I identified the yeast gene called CDC2 that controls the progression of the cell cycle and the homologous human gene called CDK1.
 
The startling similarity between the yeast and human genes that my team discovered shows that you can use yeast as a good model to study human gene function.
 
Does it mean that all living beings are somewhat connected? Typically, how does a cell function?
 
Yes, it may be true. Charles Darwin is also right in propounding his theory of evolution. In the first phase, the cell grows and becomes larger and attains a certain size. In the next phase, DNA synthesis takes place and the cell duplicates its hereditary material and a copy of each chromosome is formed.
Subsequently, the mechanism checks whether the DNA replication is completed and then begins cell division.
 
Isn't it difficult for a common man to understand the complexities of the evolution of life?
 
Biology is not a mere academic discipline. It is a study that unravels the secrets of nature, creation, evolution and dissolution. To understand the complexities of life and nature, biology should be taught or learnt as a natural phenomenon.
 
There should be better dialogue between the scientists and the public at large.
Scientific discoveries have made it easier to understand life as an organised system with unique structures of cells, genes and natural selection. Since Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665, there has been a paradigm shift in the study of biology.
 
The genetic discovery by Gregor Mendel gave the clue to hereditary and commonality. The principle of natural selection propounded by Charles Darwin enabled us to understand genetic changes and evolutionary alterations.
Since genetic changes and evolutionary alterations could not be reversed, the scientists should modify their functions by discovering products to enable mankind lead a healthy and long life.
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Interview With Nobel Laureate DAVID BALTIMORE
 
'We need to engineer the immunity system'   --- (HIV/AIDS and other diseases)
 
 
Posted online: Monday , February 11, 2008 at 0028 hrs IST
 
His research has significantly contributed to an understanding of the role of viruses in the development of cancer. And for this, David Baltimore, an American biochemist, shared the Nobel Prize for physiology and medicine in 1975 with Howard M Temin and Renato Dulbecco. He is now working to use gene therapy to build a permanent new generation of immune system. The idea is to deal with diseases like tuberculosis, cancer and HIV.
 
Baltimore served as president of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) from 1997 to 2006. He is currently the professor of biology at that institution. He has also conducted research that led to an understanding of the interactions between viruses and the genetic material of the cell. On a recent visit to India, the Nobel laureate spoke to ASHOK B SHARMA on the recent research initiatives he has undertaken to counter diseases like HIV and cancer. Excerpts:
 
How effectively can we find solution to dangerous diseases like HIV and cancer?
 
The immune system in the human body is successful in handling most of the infections and diseases by anti-bodies generated from B-cells, or by activating T-cells. But in cases of some diseases like tuberculosis and cancer, the immune system fails to counteract. We need to do something to engineer the immunity system.
 
Don't you feel HIV poses a great challenge to the global scientific community?
 
HIV does pose a great challenge to the scientific community. It is different from other viruses. It has a set of genes not found in other retroviruses or in any other virus. Genes in the process encode for proteins that have special properties—the DNA in the body and RNA of the virus. HIV processes proteins secretly and without the knowledge of the immune system. The carbohydrates cover the virus and hide its action and viral proteins are thus protected from actions by antibodies.
 
But if the HIV were completely surrounded by antibodies, there would be no scope for it to bind to the cells. The carbohydrate cover has, however, some crevices (cracks or fissures) on its surface and we are working to find out ways of using smaller molecules, not as big as antibodies, to get inside these crevices.
 
Our work is to use gene therapy to make these protective molecules actually program the immune system. We are also working with a new group who can make these binding molecules based on very different structures than antibodies.
 
Where and how are you implementing this project?
 
I call this process as engineering immunity in the human body. This can also be effective against cancer. Skirball Foundation funded our project in the initial stages and now the Bill Gates Foundation has given us $14 million.
 
But has the project made any progress?
 
The surface protein of HIV is a trimer and we have not been able to figure out the structure of the trimer, though the tree-dimensional structure of the monomer has been obtained. We have to fully understand the surface of the virus and scientists are working on it to get the clue.
 
Is there any other way in which HIV could be tackled?
 
Another way to tackle the HIV is to use T-cells. Much of the work done in the last decade was to produce T-cell based vaccines. Merck produced such a vaccine and failed. Yet there is hope. Some Companies are engaged in producing T-cell based vaccine following different methods. It would take at least 10 years to prepare such vaccines.
 
How you do propose to deal with cancer?
 
In the case of cancer, we are engineering T-cells to look for a peptide to which they can bind. Cancer cells make proteins that are different from others in cell differentiation. The body's immune system is unable to attack tumour cells due to its autoimmunity. Therefore, it is necessary to make the body's immune system to effectively respond to a particular antigen. We are trying to get genes for T-cell receptors that allow T-cells to particularly focus on melanoma. This is a joint programme we have initiated with a group at UCLA.
 
What can India do in the field of research in HIV and cancer?
 
With its skilled manpower, India has a lot of potential in research. It is in a position to build great institutions, but unfortunately, there aren't any such great institutions around. India has to create adequate environment for research. It has to follow the countries, which have created enormous environment for research like the US.
 
India faces a lot of challenge in making public healthcare affordable. It has also to make drugs available at cheaper rates. Apart from HIV, cancer and tuberculosis, there are quite many other healthcare problems that are emerging in India like the recent incidents of bird flu and chikungunya....
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Interview with Nobel Laureate ROGER KORNBERG
 
'We can soon unravel the mystery of human evolution'
 
 
Posted online: Monday , February 04, 2008 at 0033 hrs IST
 
Knowledge of genes is not just the key to unravel the mystery of human evolution. It is also a way to cure diseases arising out of genetic disorders and to prescribe suitable medicines catering to individual's genetic makeup. Promoting this thought process is Roger Kornberg of Stanford University, who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2006, for his studies of how cells take information from genes to produce proteins. The work is important for medicine, because disturbances in that process are involved in illnesses like cancer, heart disease and various kinds of inflammation. And learning more about the process is the key to using stem cells to treat disease.
 
Roger won the Nobel Prize 47 years after his father Arthur Kornberg received it in 1959, in Physiology for his discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). This was the sixth time when father and son have won Nobel Prizes. Roger Kornberg's prize-winning work produced a detailed picture of what scientists call transcription in eukaryotes, the group of organisms that includes humans and other mammals. He was recently in India on the occasion of the 95th Indian Science Congress in Visakhapatnam in early January, this year. He shed light on how information is taken from genes and converted to molecules called messenger RNA. In an interview with ASHOK B SHARMA, he discusses how the knowledge of genes will impact the future of medical therapy. Excerpts:
 
What is your take on the mechanism of life?
 
The DNA contains instructions for development and maintenance of a living organism. But DNA is alone and is silent and does nothing.
 
There is an inbuilt mechanism, which processes this information for development and maintenance of the organism. We successfully found the mechanism that processes this information.
 
Tell us something about this inbuilt mechanism?
 
The central component of the machinery is the RNA polymerase—it is a giant molecule of 30,000 atoms. In our work, we had been able to identify the precise location of these 30,000 atoms.
 
Then, we got a picture of the molecule in action, reading out the information in the DNA. This is otherwise called the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription. Eukaryotes are an important group of organisms having a well-defined cell nuclei. The process of this transcription appears to be the basis of life.
 
The mechanism appears to be automatic. But is it perfect enough?
 
In some cases, the mechanism works perfectly well and there is no problem. But at times, it makes mistakes in cases of mutation, which may lead to some diseases. We need to know how these mistakes take place and how they are corrected. We are working on these aspects.
 
Do you mean that many of the diseases can be cured if the disorder in the mechanism is corrected?
 
Yes, particularly those based on genetic disorders. Not only that, once you know the genetic make up of an individual, the right type of medicine can be prescribed. Chromosomes are collectively called the genome. Human beings respond differently to different drugs. We can soon unravel the mystery of human evolution. If future genetic studies are taken up at a cost of $1,000 per person, it can be completed within five years.
 
Your father received the Nobel Prize in Physiology in 1959. How were you inspired?
 
I do not honestly believe there is any connection. The only thing I can say is that I might have inherited genes from him. I have always been an admirer of my father's work and that of many others preceding me. My father's work was for the discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of DNA. Along with Severo Ochoa of New York University, my father was awarded the Nobel Prize. His primary research interests were in biochemistry, especially enzyme chemistry, the synthesis of DNA and studying the nucleic acids, which control heredity in animals, plants, bacteria and viruses. My work was to unravel the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription in which enzymes give voice to DNA by copying it into RNA molecules that acts as templates for protein in organisms—from yeast to humans.
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Interview with Nobel Laureate ROBERT FLOYD CURL Jr (1996 in Chemistry) 
 
'Nanotech evolved over billions of years'
 
 
Posted online: Monday , January 21, 2008 at 0141 hrs IST
 
Nanotechnology might have become the buzzword today but few are aware that it was in use in ancient times for producing a number of products. Of late, scientists have not only rediscovered it, they have also reinvented it to keep in pace with changing times, claims American chemist and Nobel Laureate, Robert Floyd Curl Jr of Rice University. Curl is known for his contributions to microwave and laser spectroscopy and the discovery of the first fullerene-the third known form of pure carbon (after diamond and graphite) in 1985. Curl's initial work was on small clusters of atoms of semiconductors, such as germanium and silicon. For his contributions, Curl shared the 1996 Nobel Prize for chemistry with Smalley and Harold Kroto. Later work on the discovery by other scientists developed fullerene chemistry, devoted to the use of fullerenes in the production of superconductors, industrial catalysts, and nanotubes. Curl was in India recently to participate in the 95th Indian Science Congress in Visakhapatnam. In an interview to ASHOK B SHARMA, he outlines the future prospects of nanoscience and nanotechnology. Excerpts:
 
Can nanotechnology surpass other technologies in the times to come?

Nanotechnology is the technology for the future generation. It will surpass all other forms of existing technologies. It can be used not only for industrial purposes but also in life sciences, particularly relating to drug delivery at the targeted points in the body. 
 
How long should we wait to reap the benefits of this emerging technology?
 
Nanotechnology is not new. It evolved over billions of years as a natural phenomenon. In the medieval period of history, there were instances where nanotechnology was deployed. Many items like the Persian Khanjar and the Damascus steel were made by unconsciously applying nano technology. The iron ore was procured from India and processed in traditional way at requisite temperatures to produce these wonderful items. A hot-forged metal was used in sword making with its particles in microns-one-millionth of a metre. While examining these ancient products, we find the existence of carbon nanotubes in them. Tipu Sultan, the ruler of the erstwhile kingdom of Mysore in India had a sword made of Damuscus steel. India, too, produced many products by unconsciously deploying nanotechnology. 
 
In 2006, a team of scientists led by the German physicist Peter Pauller found presence of nanotubes and nanowires in Tipu Sultan's sword. According to them, a complex process of forging and annealing, led the sword's development on nano-scale.
 
In which other areas was nanotechnology used in ancient times?
 
Yes, there are many more examples. The attractive colouring on ancient Czech glasses is found to contain nano particles. This shows that nanotechnology was used for spraying and making a product look attractive. However, over a period of time this knowledge was lost. Now it is being rediscovered and reinvented.
 
How and when did we rediscover nanotechnology in modern times?
 
In 1974, Japanese scientist Norio Taniguchi coined nanotechnology to mean precision making. Earlier in 1966, the American physicist, Richard Ferynmann, in a seminal paper-explained the concept of nanotechnology. In 1986, K Reic Drexier's book-Engine of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology- was published. Today, the increasing use of nanoparticles in microprocessors or chips for electronic devices has been upheld by Moore's law, which says that the power of microprocessors doubles and the cost of production are reduced by half in every 18 months.
What is fullerenes? Has its discovery helped in the development of nanoscience?
 
I and my colleagues Harold Kroto and Richard Smalley at the University of Sussex and Rice University discovered fullerenes in 1985. Fullerenes are a family of carbon allotropes named after Richard Buckminster Fuller and are sometimes called buckyballs, when in a spherical configuration. They are molecules composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube. Cylindrical fullerenes are called carbon nanotubes or buckytubes.
 
Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of a sheet of linked hexagonal rings, but they also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings that prevent the sheet from being planar. Carbon nanoscience is a newer concept, while carbon nanotechnology is much older. Carbon nanoscience needs powerful tools like structures, synthesis and uses (nanotechnology). Carbon nanoscience had its humble beginning in 1889 when a US patent was accorded to TV Hughes & CR Chambers for fibre from swamp gas-CH2. The discovery of fullerenes gave carbon nanoscience a push.
 
Nano carbon tubes can be used in electronics, healthcare, solar cells, light harvesting and composites. Nanotechnology can address environmental concerns if it's deployed in manufacturing, disposal, transportation and exposure.
 
What are its applications in medical therapy?
 
Nano particles can act as capsules carrying drugs to targeted points in the human body. Such nano capsules would be biodegradable and safe and would not cause any harm to the human body. Among other aspects where nanotechnology can help is the creation of enzymes synthesing molecules, which would produce enzymes at the rate required by the human body.
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More jobs can lead to inclusive growth: Nobel Laureate
 
 
ASHOK B SHARMA
Posted online: Monday , January 14, 2008 at 2018 hrs IST
 
New Delhi, January 14: Creation of more jobs, reasonably high wages for same type of work and innovations can lead to inclusive growth in the Economy, according to the Nobel Laureate Edmund Phelps.
 
Addressing the Bharat Ram Memorial Seminar organized by Sri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and Human Resources and the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry on Monday Phelps proposed that the government should render fiscal incentives, support or subsidy to corporate house for creation of more and more jobs with high wages. "High wages enable workers to solve various problems, participate in the growing Economy and live with dignity," he said.
 
He said that jobs, particularly for the disadvantaged and poor can lead to distributive justice. "The way the market Economy determines wage, it creates problems of inclusion. The government should step in to regulate, if necessary. There should be a vibrant labour market for equalizing wage rate for same type of work."
 
When pointed out that high wages may lead to price inflationary trend in the Economy, he said:"It is the duty of the central bank of the country to take care of such situation."
 
Phelps stressed upon innovation as another necessary aspect for economic growth to be sustainable and dynamic. Jobs and innovations added to the capability of workers and lead to dynamism in the Economy and this ultimately would lead to inclusive growth, he said.
 
He said that indigenous innovation can achieve more dynamism in the Economy.
 
The professor emeritus of the London School of Economics, Lord Meghnad Desai said: "In India the entire distribution pattern is of social nature due to political considerations. It is similar to the civil rights movements of yesteryears in the US. This should be given up and the distribution pattern needs to be changed. Government should encourage low-technology labour-intensive industries."
 
The Union minister for Panchayati Raj Institutions and northeast development, Mani Shankar Aiyer, however, batted for political Economy and said that democratic actions dictate economic policies in the country as India after Independence began with a full fledged democracy, unlike many countries in the West which took years to give democratic rights to all sections of its people. He pleaded for grassroots local village democracies and planning from the village level.
 
The chairman, Social Work Research Centre, Sanjit Bunker Roy said: "It was been demonstrated that people without formal education, particularly women have become self-reliant and productive with the help of local technologies. We have successfully set up in different parts of the country – Barefoot Colleges – quite different from formal education system to disseminate and practice the traditional ways of life."
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